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Friday, January 6, 2017

Lo Pequeño es Hermoso

Lo Pequeño es Hermoso
Reflexiones sobre la Ciencia
El Gran Diseño: La Filosofía está Muerta
En su libro, El Gran Diseño, Hawking dice que “la filosofía no le ha mantenido el paso a los descubrimientos científicos modernos, en particular los de la física”. Lo divertido aquí es que toda investigación científica es filosófica. La Ciencia supone ciertas cosas en su acercamiento al entendimiento del mundo. Estas suposiciones fluyen desde el punto de vista filosófico. El enfoque de Hawking acerca del razonamiento científico es una ideología. Una visión del mundo que fluye desde el positivismo. Ningún científico es una máquina objetiva.
Positivismo
El positivismo es una idea simple. “Ver es creer” O mejor aún, como la filosofía del hombre de Missouri: “Muéstrame”. Es la idea que vale la pena estudiar aquello que puede probarse. Sin prueba empírica, una idea no vale la pena de ser estudiad y es inútil. El vuelo de una bala de cañón es útil. Podemos aprender mucho estudiando la trayectoria de un objeto volador. Por encima de todo es útil en la batalla y como lo plantea Von Causewitz, “La guerra es la extensión de la política por otros medios” Si queremos obtener lo que deseamos en el campo de batalla, en última instancia es útil el estudiar el vuelo de la bala de un cañón.
El vuelo de un colibrí o de la imaginación humana es totalmente otra cosa. Carecemos del marco científico para estudiar la imaginación humana. Al final, la ciencia no está segura de que la psicología pueda justificarse. El positivismo significa ser “positivo” acerca de algo en el sentido de que podemos ser positivos respecto a que el tren llegará puntual. Al final, sin embargo, el positivismo es una suposición epistemológica, una idea acerca del cómo conocemos.
¿Por qué hemos de usar la ciencia para justificar la psicología? ¿Por qué no ver primero si la psicología justifica la ciencia? Tal vez la necesidad clasificar y cuantificar todo con una visión utilitaria es una cosmovisión sesgada.
La “teoría laboral del valor”, una idea que ha evolucionado desde John Locke, Adam Smith, y Karl Marx es una que satura nuestra consciencia moderna. Sostiene que una cosa es valiosa de acuerdo al esfuerzo invertido en ella. Un árbol tiene valor cuando es cortado en leña. El hombre y su hacha le han agregado valor al árbol, el cual solo en el bosque no tiene valor. Pero el mismo árbol, cuando es cortado cuidadosamente puede ser usado como madera. Tiene más valor como madera que puede ser usada para construir una casa. Y finalmente construir una casa tiene mucho más trabajo invertido en ella que la leña y vale más.
Del mismo modo, la leña es valiosa, Pero cuando la misma madera es trabajada finamente en un instrumento musical, el trabajo que se invierte en éste, crea un valor mayor. Esta es la idea tras la “teoría laboral del valor”. El valor de una cosa se incremente en proporción al tiempo y calidad del trabajo que la crea.
En Sánscrito, la palabra karma puede cubrir también el significado de trabajo. Entonces, según Adam Smith y sus discípulos economistas, entre más karma se invierta en algo en términos de calidad y cantidad, mayor será el valor que una cosa adquiera. La “teoría laboral del valor” fue propuesta por el conservador favorito Adam Smith.
Schumacher fue un pensador económico, estadista y economista en Bretaña, pero es más recordado por su libro “Lo Pequeño es Hermoso”, en donde se opone a la teoría del valor del trabajo. Mientras que Smith la presenta, la “teoría laboral del valor” también fue favorecida por Karl Marx.
Al criticar la “teoría laboral del valor”, Schumacher señala que, “estamos alejados de la realidad e inclinados a tratar de no valorar lo que no hacemos nosotros mismos. Incluso el gran Dr. Marx cayó en ese devastador error cuando formuló la llamada “teoría laboral del valor”. Ahora, hemos de hecho trabajado para hacer algo del capital que hoy nos ayuda a producir – un gran fondo de conocimiento científico, tecnológico, y otro conocimiento: una infraestructura física elaborada; Innumerableccapital de tipos de equipos sofisticados, etc.—pero esto apenas es una pequeña parte del capital total que estamos utilizando. Mucho mayor es el capital que provee la Naturaleza y no el hombre—y ni siquiera lo reconocemos como tal. Esta parte mayor es ahora usada a un ritmo alarmante. Y es por ello que es un error absurdo y suicida el creer, y el actuar en la creencia de que el problema de la producción se ha resuelto.
Es una ilusión, argumenta Schumacher, el pensar que aplicando la energía kármica a la destrucción de todo el capital natural estamos creando riqueza. De hecho estamos destruyendo la riqueza. Al talar los bosques para crear viviendas, aparentemente creamos riqueza. Al extraer el petróleo de la tierra y convertirlo en combustible para calentar esas casas estamos creando más riqueza, Al hacer gigantescas fábricas de automóviles creamos trabajos y más riqueza. Cuando quemamos la gasolina en nuestros coches, para acelerar a la gente hacia el trabajo, creamos más riqueza, La expansión ilimitada y el crecimiento económico desenfrenado se traducen en una riqueza aún mayor para todos. Pero Schumacher señala que el crecimiento infinito del consumo material en un mundo finito es algo imposible.
Creer en imposibilidades es quijotesco. Fue el Quijote después de todo quien creyó en el “sueño imposible” Se nos ha enseñado y hecho propaganda para creer en el sueño imposible del progreso científico absoluto. De nuevo, esta es una suposición epistemológica. La Ciencia nos ha hecho creer que la filosofía está muerte, que la ciencia ha superado a la filosofía. Pero la ciencia o la creencia en la ciencia es apenas una distinta clase de filosofía o suposición epistemológica.
La epistemología es el estudio del conocimiento, ¿Cómo conocemos lo que sabemos? Antes de poder investigar la realidad necesitamos marcos para organizar nuestro conocimiento. Necesitamos saber qué preguntas hacer. Si nuestra pregunta es “¿Cómo ser más productivo?” o “¿Cuál es la trayectoria de la bala de un cañón?” nuestras propias preguntas implican una suposición en particular.
La Persistencia del Tiempo de Salvador Dalí . La Epistemología implica suposiciones.
La pregunta “¿Cómos ser más productivo?” supone que la producción es valiosa. Tal pregunta puede pasar por alto las advertencias implícitas en una sobre explotación de los recursos naturales. Si yo pregunto “¿Cuál es la trayectoria de una bala de cañón?” mi pregunta muestra que yo asumo que la guerra es una herramienta útil para que avance el interés de la civilización.
Todas las preguntas implican valores. La Epistemología examina como sabemos lo que sabemos. Sería una pérdida de tiempo el preguntar acerca de lo que no podemos saber. Entonces, la filosofía nos permite reducir nuestra búsqueda al ayudarnos a enmarcar nuestras preguntas. Al reducir el alcance de nuestras preguntas, determinamos lo que puede pensarse y lo impensable. Aquellos que valoran el mundo positivista que sólo hace preguntas “útiles” limitan nuestro poder de preguntar. Uno de esos filósofos fue Kant.
Kant trató de limitar las preguntas metafísicas, adoptando la actitud de que mientras que la filosofía era en realidad una teoría del conocimiento debía esta de aplicarse a sí misma a las preguntas útiles. En lugar de interesarse en los grandes problemas cósmicos, trató de detener siglos de pensamiento filosófico al reestructurar el problema de lo que puede conocerse para que encaje en su crítica de la razón.
Kant reestructura la razón
Por supuesto, en otro sentido, como más tarde señalaría Nietzsche, toda filosofía es en realidad un juego de dialéctica. En matemáticas usamos números para enmarcar las preguntas y crear fórmulas. En filosofía, usamos palabras, La Filosofía según Nietzsche y más tarde Wittgenstein no es en realidad más que un sofisticado juego de palabras destinado a justificar una visión del mundo que ya se tiene. La visón agnóstica del mundo de Kant alimentó su destrucción de los argumentos metafísicos. Su “gran” pregunta fue “¿Cómo son posibles los juicios sintéticos a priori?” Concluyó que la filosofía debía de apoyar las ciencias duras, especialmente la física. La filosofía después de Kant tiende a evitar las preguntas difíciles. Al haber abdicado esta área del pensamiento, la filosofía pareciera haber muerto, al menos académicamente. La Filosofía cede su curiosidad a la ciencia, Y la ciencia, como hemos observado, descansa su visión en el positivismo. El paradigma positivista promovido hoy en día se enfoca en las verdades útiles que pueden probarse experimentalmente y usarse por la tecnología para incrementar la producción al intensificar la explotación kármica de la naturaleza material.

José Ortega y Gasset: No tan rápido
El Perspectivismo de José Ortega y Gasset fue una reacción a Kant. El Perspectivismo es la posición de que uno tiene acceso al mundo a través de la percepción, la experiencia y la razón es únicamente posible a través de la propia perspectiva e interpretación. Rechaza tanto la idea de una perspectiva libre o de una interpretación libre de la realidad objetiva. El perspectivismo de Ortega y Gasset es útil para desarrollar una reacción a Kant. Ortega y Gasset intenta mantener viva la metafísica señalando que toda evidencia empírica es por último sujeto de interpretación a través de los sentidos y la mente. Debido a que la experiencia sensual y mental es subjetiva, no existe una realidad objetiva absoluta. Una metafísica subjetiva puede aún contemplarse para balancear el llamado mundo objetivo. La filosofía sigue siendo necesaria y no tan muerta.
En su obra ¿Qué es Filosofía? Ortega y Gasset intenta darle sentido al impacto de Kant y más tarde Nietzche en las subsiguientes visiones del mundo. Él observa que el siglo XIX post Darwiniano, cambió radicalmente a la epistemología. Por los cambios que la sociedad de este siglo atestiguó de cómo la ciencia pretende conocer. La física que ahora dominan la filosofía, tras deshacerse de la metafísica ya no era solamente una “ciencia dura”.
Con la biología evolutiva Neo-darwiniana, las ciencias de la vida ya no fueron “ciencias blandas”. La biología no se basa meramente en una clasificación y en la taxonomía, sino en una ciencia de rigor matemático. Una manera de conocimiento medico basado en el entendimiento integral del paciente, o en generalizaciones basadas en la práctica clínica y en una experiencia de vida ya no serán permitidas. Deben dar paso a modelos matemáticos como la ciencia que gobierna la senda de las balas de las ametralladoras.
Nuevas Formas del Saber: Positivismo
Como la era Victoriana se convirtió en la generación perdida de la Primera Guerra Mundial, la ciencia cambió la vida de nuestros abuelos. La electricidad revolucionó la vida. Se acabó la superstición. Aparecieron las medicinas patentadas con brebajes radioactivos que prometen una nueva salud. . La Coca-cola contiene suficiente cocaína para darle a la gente un verdadero impulso. Los dogmas quedaron atrás. Nuevos mundos se descubrieron. Los modelos epistemológicos cambiaron. No había necesidad de cuestionar los motivos del cientificismo.
La nueva forma del saber sería “objetiva” y “pragmática” basada en modelos matemáticos. La clase de ciencia que involucra deducciones precisas, observación sensorial y conocimiento experimental era la manía. La idea era la de que había un método científico que podía combinar el razonamiento puro a través del cual llegamos a las conclusiones lógicas u una percepción pura experimental, confirmando las conclusiones de una teoría pura. El método de saber que se movía por instinto y presentimiento, imaginación y creatividad, el antiguo método de la ciencia del Siglo XIX  del ferrocarril y las herraduras se dejaría atrás. La nueva ciencia introdujo avances en física que serían la maravilla intelectual del Siglo XX y que conducirían a la dominación del átomo.
Verdades Prácticas y Útiles
Ortega y Gasset, siendo un filósofo, no estaba convencido. Señalaba que el propio método positivista no era el único ímpetu que movía la ciencia de la física hacia sus increíbles triunfos. La lógica pura y una percepción objetiva simple nada más no crearon solas el paradigma científico que llevaría a la sociedad humana hacia esos avances. Los primeros lados de un triángulo, la lógica y la percepción eran poderosos. Pero había un tercer que daba poder al paradigma: La utilidad práctica. Y como epistemología, la utilidad práctica es sospechosa. No sirve al conocimiento sino a la explotación.
Utilidad práctica
Ortega y Gasset observo que aparte del ideal de la lógica pura y la esperanza de la percepción objetiva, fue la utilidad práctica para la sociedad humana materialista la que ha impulsado realmente el paradigma científico que gobierna los logros científicos y los descubrimientos. El filósofo español señala que esa “utilidad práctica” es un marco inadecuado para la investigación científica.
Lo utilitario no es virtuoso
“La tercera característica de la ciencia (tras la percepción objetiva de la lógica pura), es de uso práctico para el dominio del hombre sobre la materia, no es precisamente una virtud o un examen de la perfección de la física como una teoría y una forma de conocimiento” (¿Qué es Filosofía? José Ortega y Gasset, p 41) En Grecia, esta fecundidad utilitario no habría ganado una influencia decisiva sobre todas las mentes, pero en Europa coincidió con el predominio de un tipo de hombre –los llamado burgueses querían establecerse cómodamente en el mundo, y para su comodidad de intervenir en él, mara modificarlo para su propio placer. Por ello, la era burguesa es honrada mayormente por el triunfo de la industrialización, y en general, por esas técnicas que son útiles a la vida—la medicina, la economía, la administración.
Prestigio de la Física
La Física adquirió un prestigio sin igual porque a partir de ella llegaron tanto la medicina como la máquina. Las masas de la clase media se interesaron en ella no por curiosidad intelectual, sino a través de su interés material. Estaba en una atmósfera tal que podríamos llamarla el “imperialismo de la física” se produjo.  “Nacidos y educados como estamos en una era que comparte esta forma de sentir, parece muy natural que el primer sitio de entre los diversos tipos de conocimiento se conceda a lo que, sea cual sea su posición en la teoría, nos otorgue el dominio sobre la materia. Pero un nuevo ciclo se inicia dentro de nosotros: pues no veremos pronto que esta forma de supremacía hace de la utilidad práctica la norma de verdad con la que hemos cesado de contentarnos. Empezamos a darnos cuenta que esta habilidad para dominar la materia y el transformarla de acuerdo a nuestros deseos, este entusiasmo por el confort es, si uno lo convierte en un principio, un argumento abierto como cualquier otro. Alertados por estas sospechas empezamos a ver que la comodidad es meramente una predicción subjetiva, o para decirlo sin rodeos, un caprichoso deseo que los pueblos occidentales han ejercitado por doscientos años, pero el cual en sí mismo no revela ninguna superioridad de carácter… la urgencia por la comodidad y la conveniencia la cual es la razón última para preferir la física es ahora un índice de superioridad.
La Búsqueda de la Superioridad y la Conveniencia
Aquí, Ortega y Gasset que escribe en la era del jazz de 1920 ha definido el motivo del siglo XX: La búsqueda de lo cómodo y conveniente define nuestro estilo de vida.
Esta búsqueda de lo cómodo y conveniente se entrelaza con nuestra  visión del mundo: se cuece en nuestra epistemología. El conocimiento práctico de cómo explotar este mundo, o de cómo tener una vida conveniente no es igual a la sabiduría. Un poco de conocimiento es algo peligroso. Y sin embargo la ciencia pasa por sabiduría. Si un niño juego con fósforos reaccionamos. Se los quitamos y le indicamos al niño: “El fuego no es un juguete”. Si vemos al mismo niño con un teléfono celular pensamos, “Qué avanzado”,
La tecnología nos impresiona como la sabiduría suprema. El símbolo de la tecnología es el fuego. Prometeo estaba encadenado a una roca donde los buitres rasgaban sus entrañas por otorgar fuego de los dioses al hombre. Parece un castigo injusto y sin embargo ahora tenemos fuego nuclear y estamos equipados para destruir nuestro planeta. ¿Estaban tan equivocados los dioses por castigar a Prometeo? O al menos ¿No deberíamos de tener una filosofía que cuestione los límites de lo que es “útil y práctico”?  ¿Es el fuego nuclear “útil y práctico”? ¿Es sabia la aplicación absoluta de toda la tecnología para la explotación máxima? O la sabiduría se mueve en dirección opuesta. Y ¿No debe la filosofía procurar la sabiduría?  Como lo pone Schumacher, “Cualquier tonto inteligente puede hacer cosas más grandes y más complejas…. Pero requiere un toque de genio y mucho valor el moverse en la dirección opuesta”.
Un conocimiento práctico de cómo manipular los elementos materiales, puede ser “práctico y útil” al crear conveniencia y comodidad. Pero esta conveniencia y comodidad son sólo temporales. Una sociedad avanzada ha de ir más allá de los conceptos básicos de la “teoría laboral del valor”, para considerar un bien mayor, no sólo para la sociedad humana sino también para el propio planeta. La matanza al por mayor de animales no es conveniente para las vacas y los toros, las ovejas o los cerdos que se convierten en hamburguesas. La destrucción masiva de culturas y lenguas alrededor del mundo tal vez se adaptan al modelo de consumo de Hollywood, o al capitalista, pero no es conveniente para los nativos y la gente indígena cuyas tradiciones están desapareciendo. La industria del turismo internacional devora la selvas tropicales y los arrecifes de coral para crear hoteles lujosos, arruinado el hábitat de la vida salvaje y los humedales para siempre. Esto no es conveniente ni cómodo para los habitantes de la selva tropical. Al final, habiéndonos entregado al consumismo desenfrenado a expensas de las generaciones futuras, las “verdades prácticas y útiles” del positivismo no han resultado ni prácticas ni útiles. A medida que las aves y las especies de mamíferos se extinguen podemos encontrar que la especie humana también se ha puesto en peligro. El modelo económico basado en la explotación y la ciencia positivista no es sustentable. El conocimiento práctico, la habilidad para hacer un fuego, y la sabiduría, el entendimiento del fuego no son equivalentes.
La visión moderna de sabiduría es todo lo que nos da comodidad. La búsqueda de comodidad y conveniencia informa nuestra epistemología, la idea de “conocimiento” que impulsa la ciencia. La sabiduría, se nos dice que es “inteligencia callejera” la sabiduría de lo que es “práctico”, de lo que es útil, de lo que nos da comodidad. Al eliminar las preguntas “imprácticas” podemos llegar a lo práctico y útil, De este modo, al restringir las preguntas que podrían cuestionar nuestra forma de conocimiento es definido por la comodidad, informada por el materialismo y el pragmatismo. Pero ¿es esta la verdadera sabiduría?




Science vs. Immortality

Immortality and Positivism


 Dogmas and Science

Scientists have been stung by the dogmas of orthodoxy since they began to look at the stars. The Greek astronomer Hypatia of Alexandria, was murdered by a mob of Christian zealots at the instigation of Cyril of Alexandria, founder of the Orthodox Church.




Saint Cyril didn’t suffer the criticism of women. His dogma had no room for heliocentrism or the doctrine of transmigration taught by Plotinus and explored by Hypatia in her lectures. The price for her heresy was death.

Copernicus kept his heliocentric theory secret, escaping excommunication only by publishing his findings posthumously. Galileo published proof for the Copernican revolution and was put on trial by the Church. Among other things, Galileo found that he could observe the orbits of the moons of Jupiter with his telescope. If the moons of Jupiter don’t orbit the earth why would the rest of the solar system be geocentric? For such dangerous ideas Galileo was found guilty of heresy. The heliocentric theory was silenced by the preachers of dogma.


Dogma has a Chilling Effect

Wherever it is enforced, dogma has a chilling effect on truth-seekers. And when truth-seekers are silenced we are left with myth and superstition. How ironic, then, that the same scientists who seek to protect us from doctrinal thinking have fallen victim to their own dogma. To shield themselves from superstition, science sequestered itself in the laboratory of positivism. By accepting an epistemology which demands evidence for everything, they sought to protect truth-seeking from dogma and doctrine. “Dogma and doctrine are the enemy of science which relies on facts,” they told us. Science staked out its territory and protected itself, armed with facts.
But subtly, science developed an ideology, the ideology of positivism. By accepting the framework that only “useful truths” can be admitted, discarding what is not “pragmatic” the scientists killed the soul. Hailing the Death of God as the great achievement of the 19th Century, they proceeded to go about murdering the eternal soul in the 20th Century.


Positivism in the Fact-free zone

But a second glance at this epistemology demonstrates that most of the facts labelled as such by Positivism were really only fragments of facts.
And now, a full century and a half after the advent of positivism, facts have come and gone. We live in a fact-free zone, a world of fake news where “perception is reality.” The leader of the free world has one opinion today and a different one tomorrow, all substantiated with facts and statistics. Nothing could be more quintessentially American. It was Ralph Waldo Emerson who exhorted his students to “Speak what you think today in hard words and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though it contradict every thing you said today.” Today, through various media outlets, we hear rivers of hard words calling us to action in the morning and a different and contrary action in the afternoon.
American Philosopher and Writer, Ralph Waldo Emerson

Who Controls the Past Controls the Future
This goes beyond Emerson to Orwell. In Orwellian language, "Who controls the past controls the future; who controls the present controls the past." The purpose of propaganda is to control the story both of the past and the future. As enraged mobs riot in the streets and loot stores the President tells us that all is well. Low wages and cheap labor is beneficial. Higher prices will bring prosperity. When rich people get richer it is for the benefit of the nation. Dissident voices must be silenced for the good of the public. We are at war with Russia. Russia is our friend. We were never at war with Russia. We are at war with Mexico. Mexico is our friend. We are at war with Russia. Or as Orwell put it, “The past was alterable. The past never had been altered. Oceania was at war with Eastasia. Oceania had always been at war with Eastasia.”
Orwell wrote 1984 in 1948. 69 years later his fiction is reality. We volunteer information to the telescreeens, allowing Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, Skype, Messenger and other social medias to chart our every action, to map our every move by GPS, to know and catalogue our every like in order to send us thousands of advertisements and political messages calculated to keep us in line. As American writer Joseph put it in his novel Catch-22, “Just because you're paranoid doesn't mean they aren't after you.”


Orwellian Dogma of Positivism
If Positivism was an ideology based on facts, facts no longer matter. If the scientific epistemology of the last century was “useful truth,” truth no longer matters. A full century and a half after the advent of positivism, facts have come and gone. We live in a fact-free zone, a world of fake news where “perception is reality.” We are not interested in facts or “useful truth.” Truth has been devalued. It isn’t what it was cracked up to be. “What is useful” has replaced “What is true.” In this sense, Hawking is right, philosophy is dead. Philosophers are no longer “useful.”
What is “useful” is what serves the paradigm of the ruling class, the powers that be. And so alternative medicine is rejected and common medical knowledge was once thought axiomatic is now dismissed as mere superstition. With greater powers of observation and newer technologies the facts have changed, we are told. What is “useful” is science that serves corporate interests. “Corporate agriculture is good,” we are told, “it will benefit our nation and feed the hungry; organic agriculture is for dangerous hippies.”

Orthodoxy of Science
Where scientists like Copernicus once cowered before religious orthodoxy, spiritual truth-seekers are cowed down by the orthodoxy of science.
We have seen that the pragmatic epistemology of science has brought us horrors like napalm, weaponized small-pox, global warming, and a contaminated environment. And yet we are addicted to the ideology of exploitation and the epistemology of “useful truth” promoted by Hawking and company. The ideology of positivism continues to captivate; its propaganda is relentless. But the psychology of positivism is not as “useful” as it appears to be. It does not ultimately bring us the “comfortable life” promised by technology. The psychology of exploitation is not only dangerous to the life of the mind. In the end it is life-denying, soul-denying, and negative.

The Living Universe
Physicists tell us that consciousness is not an interesting question, it is neither “useful” nor practical. How strange that we occupy a living universe, and yet science is life-denying. Life is poetry. Philosophy used to be an attempt to reconcile the poetry of life with the hard reality of existence. But philosophy is dead, we are told. Since the advent of positivism, scientists have been determined to destroy the poetry of philosophy. By repeating the half-truth that consciousness is nothing but brain activity our so-called “investigators” objectively restrict themselves only to the study of conscious “states,” to the study of the effect of consciousness. By studying states of consciousness, consciousness itself has disappeared. But the disappearance of the soul is the very project at the heart of positivism.

Consciousness and Reason
Why can’t we study spiritual consciousness through the use of reason? A crime lab studying DNA must burn the tissue sample containing DNA in order to study it. In the examination and testing of certain complicated, organic, living chemical compounds, the reagents destroy the very body it was to examine. All that is obtained by this study is the product of decomposition, the remnants a dead organism. This is something like what happens when science applies its analysis to consciousness. Trying to study the soul by the use of metacognitive reason is like going outside your house and looking inside the window to see if anyone is home. Since the subject and object of study are one, nothing is learned. It is an exercise in the kind of espejismo celebrated by Jorge Luis Borges in his story, The Library of Babel.

As the Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno puts it in A Tragic Sense of Life, materialists fail to find the self, since they are looking for states of consciousness and not the soul itself: “Taking as their starting-point the evident fact that contradictory states pass through our consciousness, they did not succeed in envisaging consciousness itself, the "I." To ask a man about his "I" is like asking him about his body.”

The nature of the self, or the undying consciousness, may be intuited, of course, through the persistence of memory, of continuity in time. Memory study is another area by which we may try to discover the innate characteristic of the living entity. The persistence of memory, then would appear to me to be indisputable evidence that “who I am to-day” derives, by a continuous series of states of consciousness, from him who was in my body twenty years ago.

This is echoed in the ancient teachings of Krishna in the Gitopanishad where the soul is defined as an eternal being, withstanding the changes of time:

As the embodied soul continually passes, in this body, from boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another body at death. The self-realized soul is not bewildered by such a change...For the soul there is never birth nor death. Nor, having once been, does he ever cease to be. He is unborn, eternal, ever-existing, undying and primeval. He is not slain when the body is slain.” Bhagavad-Gita As It Is, transl. A.C. Bhaktivedānta Swāmī, 2.12,20

Friday, December 30, 2016

Immortality and Transmigration


In Western culture practical minds decode the mechanics of fire and ice. Immortality is left to madmen. Plato’s Socrates was one such madman. A saint among the early Greek philosophers, Socrates discourses on the immortality of the soul while drinking poison. He points out that the psychic substance of the soul will live better without the body. This mortal frame is only a disturbance; imprisoned within the corporeal mass the soul is hardly free to soar to the heights of immortality.
Soaring to the heights...

As an idealist, Plato himself felt there must be a higher reality where the immortal soul discovers the true forms. Plato was a mathematician. In our world mathematics is the basis of what we call “hard” science; in Plato’s world mathematics was the basis of mysticism. Plato like Pythagoras before him saw perfection in such divine forms as the circle.
Pythagoras of Samos

While Pythagoras authored many formulas, such as his famous theorem on the triangle, he was considered a cult leader in his own time. His followers the Pythagoreans were suppressed as madmen by the orthodox Greeks of the time. Their idea of immortality included transmigration of the soul, metempsychosis or reincarnation.
His teachings survived through the oral tradition and through Plato’s affection for transmigration and mathematics. The Pythagoreans were early vegetarians. The ancient Greek historian Photius records:
The Pythagoreans abstained from eating animals on account of their belief in transmigration, and also because flesh-food engages digestion too much, and is too fattening. Beans they also avoided, because they produce flatulency, over-satiety, and for other reasons.
According to tradition it was Pythagoras, coined the word "philosophy" ("love of wisdom") and "philosopher" (lover of wisdom). He taught that "only God, not man, could be wise." He felt that it was premature to call philosophy "wisdom" and those who practice it - "wise men." A philosopher is someone who feels attracted to wisdom. According to legend, Pythagoras' teachers were sages from faraway lands. Not only was he schooled in childhood by Middle Eastern priests and astrologers, but also the famous mathematician Thales of Miletus. Thales as the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the originating substances of matter and, therefore, as the founder of the school of natural philosophy. Thales was a great natural philosopher erudite in history, science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and politics with theories on all these subjects. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse in a year when the Medians and the Lydians were at war.
The account of Herodotus is apocryphal and is subject to some debate as to whether the eclipse in question occurred in on May 28, 585 B.C., or 25 years earlier in 610 B.C.  In any case, Pythagoras himself must have profited by sitting at the feet of such a great master of mathematics absorbing his teachings. It is believed that Pythagoras had visited Tibet when only a teenager and that he learned many of his esoteric doctrines regarding transmigration of the soul from ancient seers of the truth either in India or Tibet.
Plato’s ideas on the immortality of the soul clearly mirror those of Pythagoras, but were not shared by his own disciple Aristotle. Plato held that the body and soul are two distinct entities, the soul belonging to the ideal world and the body to the material world. Like Pythagoras, Plato felt that the soul was temporarily implanted within an embodied form but would one day return to the ideal world. Immortal and unchanging, the soul would seek out immortal understanding or knowledge in the perfect world of “forms. The external body operates in the sensual, empiric world, but the soul aspires for the perfect, ideal world.

Aristotle held a more materialistic view. He felt that body and soul are interdependent. The Renaissance painter Raphael’s “School of Athens” is a fresco of Plato’s academy. In the center of the painting we see Plato strolling with Aristotle, engaged in conversation. Plato points upwards. He seems to say, “It’s up there.” Aristotle’s hand, in contrast, faces the earth. He seems to say, “No, master, it’s down here.” The painting captures the dichotomy between master and student and the essence of their disagreement. Plato’s emphasis is with the ideal, Aristotle’s with the real.


Thomas Aquinas did his best to reconcile Plato and Aristotle with the teachings of the Church. The scientific ideas of Aristotle had recently entered the Western world by way of the Islamic world. Aquinas was commissioned with justifying the ways of God to man. And his justification is quite Aristotelian. Aquinas adopted Aristotle's classification of material objects as well as his views time, space, and motion. Aquinas used Aristotle’s idea of the prime mover as proof for the existence of a necessary being as one of his principle arguments. Aquinas borrows Aristotle’s cosmology just as would Dante later in his Divina Commedia. There is little room between the analysis of Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle's own account of sense perception and empiric knowledge. Not only did Aquinas borrow his cosmology: His moral philosophy is closely based on on Aristotle’s Ethics. Aquinas did his best to create a synthesis between faith and philosophy and was successful in that his system went unchallenged for hundreds of years.


Perhaps Plato is too pagan for the Angelic Doctor. His ideas about transmigration of the soul were avoided and faded into obscurity. Aquinas promotes the Church doctrine of immortality, which while owing much to the Greek philosopher, in the Christian world is distinct from the ideal forms of Plato. Aquinas believes in the objective world as did Aristotle and thinks that we can reason from the design of the world to the designer. Plato believes that the true forms of the ideal world exist beyond our sensual reality and that the senses and their perceptions are unreliable.
If Aquinas ignored the idea of reincarnation in his treatise on God and the immortality of the soul, he was only doing his job. By time Aquinas, working as papal theologican for Pope Clement IV, was writing his Summa Theologica in 1265, the doctrine of transmigration of the soul had been anathema and heresy for at least 700 years. The idea of reincarnation or metempsychosis became heresy the the 5th Ecumencial Council, the Second Council of Constantinople in 553.

2nd Council of Constantinople, 553
 
At the Second Council, the Church took great care to
condemn as anathema the philosophy and teachings of Origen of Alexandria. Origen of Alexandria (185-254 AD), was one of the greatest Christian theologians of his time. His seminal On First Principles, is a masterwork of Christian Neoplatonism. Origen absorbs many of Plato’s ideas, including transmigration of the soul. The Alexandrian theologian lived through the troubled times of the Early Church. During those dark days Christians were persecuted, martyred and exterminated. There was little or no doctrinal consensus between the regional churches of his time. Gnosticism opposed Christianity while Origen offered its refutation. Origen offered an alternative Christian system to Gnosticism that was more rigorous and philosophically respectable than the mythological speculations of the various Gnostic sects, while supporting the idea of reincarnation.


A critic of pagan philosophy, he was an astute student of Plato and Plotinus and adapted the teachings of Plato and the Greeks to his interpretation of Christian faith. His explanation was influential. His version of immortality was later rejected by the authorities of the Constantine counsel who were determined to purge the idea of reincarnation from the teachings of the Church. The council asserted, for example:
“IF anyone asserts the fabulous pre-existence of souls, and shall assert the monstrous restoration which follows from it: let him be anathema.”
The critics of Origen attacked him on individual points, and did not create a systematic theology to oppose him.  Even so, one can glean from their writings five major points that Christianity has raised against reincarnation:
(1)   It seems to minimize Christian salvation.
(2)   It is in conflict with the resurrection of the body.
(3)   It creates an unnatural separation between body and soul.
(4)   It is built on a much too speculative use of Christian scriptures.
(5)   There is no recollection of previous lives.
It is surprising that it took at least two centuries for the Church to issue this condemnation of Origen’s particular interpretation of immortality which favored transmigration of the soul. The case against Plato’s view had been building for years.
During the period from A.D. 250 to 553 controversy raged, at least intermittently, around the name of Origen, and from this controversy emerged the major objections that orthodox Christianity raises against reincarnation.  Origen of Alexandria, one of Christianity's greatest systematic theologians, was a believer in reincarnation.
Origen was a serious philosopher and theologian, fascinated with the Greeks devoted to scriptural authority, a scourge to the enemies of the church, and a martyr for Christian faith.   But while he was an important spiritual teacher in the Alexandria of his day with a large body of writings and profound faith, his teachings were declared heresy by the bishops of the Constantine Council of 553. 
The debates over his so-called heresy reveals the antipathy over reincarnation in the theology of the Christian church. While Origen was a lion of the Church in his own lifetime objections were raised against his teachings from about fifty years after his death in the year. The case against him built over the centuries. Bishops opposing his views included Theophilus, Jerome, and the Byzantine Emperor Justinian one of the founders of the Eastern Orthodox Church. 
The bishops were opposed to the idea of the preexistence of souls as well as Origen's Platonic doctrine about the resurrection of the dead.  His teachings became the subject of heated debate throughout Christendom. Bishops began to oppose what they saw as questionable doctrine in Origen’s writings.  Transmigration of the soul would suggest that punishment in Hell, for example, is not eternal. The Doctrine of Eternal Punishment was espoused by Augustine.
In many ways, Saint Augustine of Hippo who succeeded Origen, working and writing some 50 years after his death was the most influential theologian among the Early Church Fathers. Disagreement with his writings is tantamount to heresy, and this applied especially in the case of Origen. Augustine had promoted the doctrine of Eternal Punishment. Origen had favored re-incarnation and temporary punishment. But if any one life is merely a way-station to further learning in a proximate life, then punishment can only be temporary. Eternal Punishment is vitiated by the idea of re-incarnation. This made it unacceptable doctrine, especially for the influential Augustine.
The battle was won after the controversy flared up around 535, and in the wake of this the Emperor Justinian composed a tract against Origen in 543, proposing nine anathemas against "On First Principles", Origen's chief theological work.  Origen was finally officially condemned to Hell forever in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, when fifteen anathemas were charged against him.
The ninth anathema of Justinian clearly condemns the idea that Hell might be a temporary situation: If anyone says or thinks that the punishment of demons and of impious men is only temporary, and will one day have an end, and that a restoration will take place of demons and of impious men, let him be anathema. This anathema against Origen solidified the position of Saint Augustine and the doctrine of Eternal Punishment in Hell.  
Augustine’s doctrine of eternal torment was not a widely held view for the first five ccenturies after the advent of Christ. Eternal Punishment in Hell is nowhere found in the compassionate teachings of the Early Church, especially in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Early apostles and Church fathers such as St. Paul, Clement of Alexandria, St. Gregory of Nyssa, Origen, and others have no use for the Doctrine of Eternal Punishment.
But Eternal Punishment is especially useful for those who control the doctrine. The only way of escaping Eternal Punishment, after all, is to follow the authorities and maintain a good standing in the community of followers.
St. Augustine’s Doctrine of Eternal Punishment ensures dependence on the priesthood and the Church authorities who will define what behavior is acceptable and what is heresy. And so, with the council of Constantinople and its anathemas, Christian Orthodoxy preserved itself through fear and control, opting to protect it’s doctrinal “truth” through the active suppression of opposing ideas and by condemning its former saints to burn in hell along with their family members.
For the Orthodox, the heretical idea of reincarnation died and went to Hell along with the teachings of Origen and his followers.
But heretics have a way of becoming saints again. After trial by the Church for heresy, on May 30, 1431, Joan of Arc was burned at the stake at the Old Marketplace in Rouen, France. Her rehabilitation took nearly 600 years. Saint Joan of Arc was canonized into Sainthood by the Catholic Church on May 16, 1920. If heretics can become saints, ideas are also reborn and resurrected.
The ancient mysticism of Pythagoras was suppressed, but found new life in the teachings of Plato. Plato’s idealism has come and gone. Rejected by the pragmatists of science, Plato’s cave lives again in the science fiction of the Matrix.
Reincarnation, while sometimes condemned by Orthodox theologians has a way of resurrecting itself in the hearts and minds of those who contemplate the immortal character of the soul.
English poetry is not known for great flights of metaphysical fancy. Shakespeare rarely mentions the soul; his version of comedy and tragedy was moved by baser motives. Money, sex, and power suffice in Shakespeare to move his players across the stage. They strut and fret their lines on love and death. His poetry stabs the heart but rarely touches the soul.
And yet, transcending even the rhapsodical lines of Shakespeare, for higher heights there is the great metaphysical poet John Donne. Long out of favor, Donne has recently been rediscovered. While John Donne’s standing as a great English poet, and one of the greatest writers of English prose, is now assured, his metaphysical observations were out of favor during much of recent history. His reputation remarkable in that his poetry had fallen so far from favor; condemned as inept and crude during the Restoration. Just as Joan of Arc, John Donne had been considered a bit of a heretic, out of vogue with critics. He was rehabilitated with the help of T.S. Eliot and William Butler Yeats. His poem, Metempsychosis or “The Progresse of the Soul” is a long paean to reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul.


“SING the progress of a deathless soul,
Whom fate, which God made, but doth not control,
Placed in most shapes; all times, before the law
Yoked us, and when, and since, in this I sing.”

John Donne’s poem, thick with mythology, biblical reference and fable, chronicles the the predicaments of an immortal soul imprisoned in a series of material bodies. He documents the transmigrations of an individual soul through plant animal, and human forms. His poem takes us through the debates on immortality that occupied philosophers from Plato to Aquinas: Is the soul unique to the human form of life? What is the relation between body and soul? If we as souls transmigrate from one body to the next, do we remember our past lives? Donne’s metaphysical questions go to the core beliefs of civilization and the heart of the debate over immortality. As Plato and Pythagoras before him, Donne sees transmigration as a natural consequence of the immortality of the soul. The possibility that a soul might transmigrate from one body to the next, from vegetable to animal to human intrigues the Elizabethan poet whose insight is far deeper than Shakespeare.
He plans to write volumes on the subject, or at least a book whose insight will go beyond sacred scripture. He leaves us only a fragmentary poem on the Progress of the Soul. Donne begins with the soul whose spark inhabited the apple given by Eve to Adam. He imagines the same soul born in the womb of Eve as Cain who passes from one body to the next, even incarnating as Queen Elizabeth herself. His leaves the poem unfinished, a writing project to be completed at a later date. But while his poem is inconclusive, Donne’s poetry makes it clear that he believes that the immortal soul animates one body after the next in its journey through time.






Resurrection is possible for Christ who teaches us the meaning of Die to Live through his example of sacrifice and rebirth. Why wouldn’t the individual’s sojourn through time describe a similar parallax? The idea of reincarnation or transmigration is certainly not original with Plato.
The ancient wisdom of India is enshrined in the teachings of Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita. There we find the following instruction (translation by A.C. Bhaktivedānta Swāmi Prabhupāda):
देहिनो ’स्मिन् यथा देहे कौमारं यौवनं जरा
तथा देहान्तर-प्राप्तिर् धीरस् तत्र न मुह्यति

dehino ’smin yathā dehe kaumāraṁ yauvanaṁ jarā
tathā dehāntara-prāptir dhīras tatra na muhyati
Bhagavad-Gita 2.13
“As the embodied soul continuously passes, in this body, from boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another body at death. A sober person is not bewildered by such a change.”
अविनाशि तु तद् विद्धि येन सर्वम् इदं ततम्
विनाशम् अव्ययस्यास्य न कश्चित् कर्तुम् अर्हति

avināśi tu tad viddhi yena sarvam idaṁ tatam
vināśam avyayasyāsya na kaścit kartum arhati

Bhagavad-Gita 2.17
“That which pervades the entire body you should know to be indestructible. No one is able to destroy that imperishable soul.”

न जायते म्रियते वा कदाचिन्नायं भूत्वा भविता वा न भूयः
अजो नित्यः शाश्वतो ’यं पुराणो न हन्यते हन्यमाने शरीरे

na jāyate mriyate vā kadācin nāyaṁ bhūtvā bhavitā vā na bhūyaḥ
ajo nityaḥ śāśvato ’yaṁ purāṇo na hanyate hanyamāne śarīre

For the soul there is neither birth nor death at any time. He has not come into being, does not come into being, and will not come into being. He is unborn, eternal, ever-existing and primeval. He is not slain when the body is slain.

वासांसि जीर्णानि यथा विहाय नवानि गृह्णाति नरो ’पराणि
तथा शरीराणि विहाय जीर्णान्य् अन्यानि संयाति नवानि देही

vāsāṁsi jīrṇāni yathā vihāya navāni gṛhṇāti naro ’parāṇi
tathā śarīrāṇi vihāya jīrṇāny anyāni saṁyāti navāni dehī


“As a person puts on new garments, giving up old ones, the soul similarly accepts new material bodies, giving up the old and useless ones.
(Bhagavad-Gita Chapter 2, verse 22)
As a person gives up old and worn out garments and accepts new apparel, similarly the embodied soul giving up old and worn out bodies verily accepts new bodies.
अच्छेद्यो ’यम् अदाह्यो ’यम् अक्लेद्यो ’शोष्य एव च
नित्यः सर्व-गतः स्थाणुर् अचलो ’यं सनातनः
acchedyo ’yam adāhyo ’yam akledyo ’śoṣya eva ca
nityaḥ sarva-gataḥ sthāṇur acalo ’yaṁ sanātanaḥ

This individual soul is unbreakable and insoluble, and can be neither burned nor dried. He is everlasting, present everywhere, unchangeable, immovable and eternally the same.
(Bhagavad-Gita Chapter 2, verse 24)

जातस्य हि ध्रुवो मृत्युर् ध्रुवं जन्म मृतस्य च
तस्माद् अपरिहार्ये ’र्थे न त्वं शोचितुम् अर्हसि

jātasya hi dhruvo mṛtyur dhruvaṁ janma mṛtasya ca
tasmād aparihārye ’rthe na tvaṁ śocitum arhasi
One who has taken his birth is sure to die, and after death one is sure to take birth again. Therefore, in the unavoidable discharge of your duty, you should not lament.
(Bhagavad-Gita Chapter 2, verse 27)

Commentary by Bhaktisiddhānta Saraswati Ṭhākura
In this last verse the cycle of life is clearly revealed. From birth comes death and from death comes birth. Just like in the spring new buds grow which blossom into flowers and leaves in summer and in autumn change to red, yellow and orange in fall and blow away and become dormant in winter to begin the process all over again in the following year. In the a similar way the soul enters new bodies for its seasons of infancy, youth, maturity and old age and at the end of its cycle of life is born again accepting a new body for another season. This is an inevitable process in the material existence and is the automatic process that governs the birth and death. All beings existing in the material manifestation completely follow this reality.